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Hiroshima : 70 Years After the A-bombing

Hiroshima Asks: Toward the 70th Anniversary of the Atomic Bombing: Gap in perspective between Japan and the United States

Keeping alive the A-bomb memories

by Masakazu Domen and Yumi Kanazaki, Staff Writers

Seventy years after the atomic bombings, activities to bequeath the experiences of the atomic bombings to the next generation are being urgently pursued both in Japan and in the United States. In Japan, the atomic bombings, the first nuclear attacks in human history, are seen as extreme tragedy; in the United States, their development is viewed as a point of national pride. Will these two perspectives of the atomic bombings remain at odds? The Chugoku Shimbun examines how both nations are handing down their memories for the future.

Atomic bombings still seen as symbol of victory

There has been significant movement in the United States to hand down the memories of the Manhattan Project, the effort which produced the atomic bombs. This past December, a law was passed which designates the sites and facilities connected to the Manhattan Project a National Historical Park. Despite objections from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, arguing that this will lend justification for the atomic bombings, the idea becomes a reality 70 years after the A-bomb attacks.

The driving force behind the adoption of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park Act was the Atomic Heritage Foundation, established in 2002 by Cynthia Kelly, 68, who formerly worked at the U.S. Department of Energy. Seeing Manhattan Project properties torn down, one after another, she decided to establish the foundation and preserve them. She lobbied members of Congress and officials of influential organizations to raise support for her goal.

There were twists and turns before the bill became law. In 2012, criticism within the House of Representatives was voiced, saying that the law would glorify the atomic bombings, and the bill did not gain the necessary two-thirds of the votes to pass. In 2013 and 2014, the bill was not submitted as an individual item, but as part of a bill which determines the entire budget for national defense. It was adopted on this third attempt, with objections mainly made over financial concerns.

Intention is not to glorify the bombings

The sites that form the park are located in three different U.S. states: Los Alamos in New Mexico; Hanford in Washington, where the plutonium for the Nagasaki bomb was extracted; and Oak Ridge in Tennessee. The facilities where the atomic bombs were assembled, a nuclear reactor, and the Oppenheimer House in Los Alamos have also been designated properties of the park.

When the act passed, Hiroshima Mayor Kazumi Matsui sent a letter to U.S. Ambassador Caroline Kennedy, urging that the United States fully consider the facts of the atomic bombings in the process of creating this park. He also offered to cooperate by providing materials. The Japan Confederation of A- and H-Bomb Sufferers Organizations (Nihon Hidankyo) also sent a letter to President Barack Obama. “We are concerned that the park may strengthen the voices that justify the development and the use of the atomic bombs,” the letter said. “We cannot approve this decision.”

Ms. Kelly emphasized that the sites will not become a venue for glorifying the atomic bombings or forcing one-sided views onto visitors. She believes it is better not to tear down these properties, but to preserve them for future generations so people can reflect on the complexity of the history involving the atomic bombings.

In Japan, too, there are “negative legacies” of the war, such as Ohkunoshima Island in Takehara [not far from Hiroshima], where poison gas was produced. It is true that a deeper understanding of history can be found by visiting actual sites.

Nevertheless, this myth, which contradicts the findings of historical study, is still firmly believed: “The atomic bombs were the single decisive factor which brought Japanese militarism to an end and saved the lives of a million American soldiers by avoiding an invasion of mainland Japan.” In this light, how can the facts be carefully conveyed to visitors of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park? Will the facts be accepted without bias? These are questions that need answers.

Interpretation may take on a life of its own

The main promoters of the bill were the members of Congress from the states where the three sites which make up the park are located. When the bill was passed in the Senate last December, Maria Cantwell, senator from the state of Washington, posted her comment on her website saying, “Creating the Manhattan Project National Historical Park will open to doors for millions of Americans to learn about the scientific achievements made at Hanford….Preserving the B Reactor as a national Historical Park will increase visitor access and provide a boost to the Tri-Cities tourism economy”

If the atomic bombs are considered only a scientific achievement and the site is used to promote the development of the area, won’t this become a venue for the nation to celebrate the heady victory of war? “If these sites are turned into a historical park, there will be no stopping the interpretation from taking on a life of its own,” said Terumi Tanaka, 82, the secretary general of Nihon Hidankyo, expressing his concerns.

The National Park Service will define the overall significance of the sites, and within one year after the law takes effect, the Manhattan Project National Historical Park will be established. This period is an opportunity for Hiroshima and Nagasaki to speak out and add its voice to these developments.

NGO collects testimonies to preserve memories of the Manhattan Project

“Everything was a secret. We couldn’t talk about what happened at work.”

Rosemary Lane, 93, was speaking on video at a house in a residential area, rich with greenery, in Rockville, Maryland, about 30 kilometers northwest of Washington, D.C., the U.S. capital. The interview was held to record her personal account of the Manhattan Project.

Ms. Lane, born in Iowa, moved to Oak Ridge, Tennessee in the summer of 1943 to work as a nurse. This was the site where the uranium used for the Hiroshima bomb was enriched. There she helped with a patient who was suffering from a mental illness and had to be detained and treated at the site until the end of the war because his duties had given him intimate knowledge of the Manhattan Project.

The Atomic Heritage Foundation, based in Washington, D.C., is collecting the testimonies of physicists, engineers, and others who were involved in the project. The foundation has posted the accounts of about 230 people on its website, including some recorded in earlier years. Cynthia Kelly, the president of the organization, said, “We must record these testimonies now, including those that share the negative side.” She hopes to create comprehensive records from this time to convey the full picture of the Manhattan Project for future generations.

Is there anything in these memories preserved in the United States which overlaps with the sentiments of people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki?

While speaking easily with Ms. Kelly, Ms. Lane said, “To my mind, I’ve never felt that the atomic bombings weren’t justified. Japan had been warned but continued to wage war.” She seemed to turn toward this reporter at that moment. While the United States and its allies had demanded Japan’s unconditional surrender in the Potsdam Declaration, it is not known if the United States had actually warned Japan about its secretive project.

After the recording concluded, Ms. Lane said that she hopes the past will not be repeated. Wars are unbearable, she explained, because women and children also become victims. It was clear that she values life.

Still, the gap in perspective between the United States and Japan, which has lingered for 70 years, was apparent.

For the survivors of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, August 6 is the day they inevitably reflect on the sufferings that began that summer morning. For Americans, the Manhattan Project was an effort of diligent work to achieve the same end, the A-bomb attack. Will there come a day when the people of both nations listen closely to each other’s experiences and pledge not to repeat this history?

Museum director discusses showing the A-bomb damage in Los Alamos

As the Manhattan Project sites are made into a National Historical Park, there are other new developments in the United States which seek to avoid glorifying the atomic bombings. Efforts are being made to implement these visions. The Chugoku Shimbun visited Los Alamos, New Mexico, the heart of the Manhattan Project, and spoke with Heather McClenahan, 48, the executive director and Stephanie Yeamans, 30, registrar, of the Los Alamos Historical Museum.

What is the nature of this museum?

During the time of the Manhattan Project, this was a guest house. The museum is a small facility which welcomes about 35,000 visitors annually. We try to show a wide spectrum of local history, from ancient times to today. The project to develop the atomic bombs is naturally an important part of this history.

What are your challenges with regard to exhibits?

Our space is very limited, however, we have been doing our best so that people can learn from history through multiple perspectives. If we can find the funds, we would like to send members of our staff to Hiroshima and Nagasaki this year to gather the necessary information. We would like to explore opportunities for developing the relationship with Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

Isn’t it difficult for you to focus on the A-bomb damage?

In Los Alamos, people are proud of the city’s contribution to ending the war against Japan by developing the atomic bombs. Since the museum is supported by the local community, we can’t offend people. We understand that we must be very careful. However, we also don’t wish to shy away from controversial issues.

With regard to what happened in Japan after the atomic bombings, the environmental impact, the atomic bombings as the dawn of the nuclear age...we must not simplify this history or force one-sided views on people, but provide information from various perspectives. Museums are moving this way, particularly in recent years.

In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, people wonder if the damage is really understood and if the two nations can actually understand each other. Without dialogue, it’s hard for us to know how different our ways of thinking are. Fortunately, the board members of this museum are receptive to our policies. We would like to take another step forward. I’m sure there’s a way.

Major events involved in shaping views in Japan and in the United States on the A-bombings

August 1942 The Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs is begun.

August 1945 Atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. U.S.
       President Harry S. Truman issues a statement which says
       that the United States won the greatest scientific gamble
       in history.

September 1945 The General Headquarters of the Allied Forces (GHQ)
         issues a press code to restrict media coverage of the
         atomic bombings during the occupation period.

February 1947 Henry Stimson, the former U.S. secretary of war, writes
        an article for Harper’s Magazine in which he says that he
        was told, if the atomic bombs were not used, an invasion
        of mainland Japan could result in a million casualties to
        U.S. forces alone.

August 1949 The Soviet Union succeeds in its first atomic test. The
       Cold War between East and West becomes a nuclear arms
       race.

August 1952 Asahi Graph features “First Look at A-bomb Devastation.”

March 1954 The Daigo Fukuryu Maru (The Lucky Dragon No. 5) is
       exposed to radiation from a U.S. hydrogen bomb test at
       Bikini Atoll. A signature drive to oppose atomic and
       hydrogen bombs spreads.

August 1955 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum opens. ·The first World
       Conference Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs is held in
       Hiroshima.

October 1962 With the Cuban Missile Crisis, tensions between the
       United States and the Soviet Union rise to the brink of
       nuclear war.

December 1989 The leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union
        declare the end of the Cold War.

January 1995 The atomic bomb exhibition planned by the Smithsonian
       National Air and Space Museum sparks a political
       firestorm. The exhibition, with its artifacts of the
       atomic bombings, is canceled. The director of the museum
       resigns in May.

December 1996 The A-bomb Dome is registered as a World Heritage site.

December 2014 An act is passed which designates Manhattan Project
      properties a National Historical Park.

Keywords

The Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was the U.S. effort to develop and manufacture atomic bombs during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was afraid that Nazi Germany might produce an atomic bomb before the United States and issued an executive order. The Manhattan Engineer District, organized by the Army in 1942, headed the project. The United Kingdom joined forces with the United States, and the project was pursued on a large scale in complete secrecy. Uranium was enriched in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and plutonium was produced at Hanford, Washington. Robert Oppenheimer and others played key roles in designing and developing the atomic bombs at Los Alamos, New Mexico.

On July 16, 1945, the first atomic test in human history was successfully carried out at Trinity Site in southern New Mexico. This was followed by the dropping of a uranium bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and a plutonium bomb on Nagasaki three days later.

Hiroshima makes efforts to hand down A-bomb memories

Her face was slashed by the blast of the atomic bomb, and she lost sight in her left eye. But with the hope that this past will never be repeated, she has continued to tell the tragedy, still vivid in memory, that she witnessed with her right eye.

“I don’t know how much longer I can continue. I need your support,” said Taeko Teramae, 84, an A-bomb survivor who lives in Asaminami Ward, Hiroshima. She was speaking to the “Hibakusha Successors,” citizens who are undergoing training organized by the City of Hiroshima to cultivate human resources who will give testimonies of the atomic bombing on behalf of aging survivors.

A total of 206 applicants from in and around the city are taking part in the three-year training to “take over” the experience of 27 A-bomb survivors. Ms. Teramae led a group of about 10 “successors” on an outing to trace her path in the aftermath of the atomic bombing.

In spite of illness, persevering with her testimony

“The stairs were full of people falling on top of each other so I jumped from the window of the second floor,” Ms. Teramae recalled from in front of the monument at the site of the Hiroshima Central Telephone Bureau in Fukuromachi, Naka Ward.

Ms. Teramae was 15 years old at the time, a student mobilized for the war effort and working as a telephone operator. That morning, before her work day began, she was standing in a line of students in the corridor. “Outside the window I saw something shiny falling in the sky. I wondered what it was. At that instant...”

The building was 540 meters from the hypocenter. According to the Record of the A-bomb Disaster, published by the City of Hiroshima, about half of the 451 employees and mobilized students who were there at the telephone bureau that day were killed. “I always feel as if my friends are asking me, ‘Are you having a meaningful life?’” She has suffered seven cancers, including uterine cancer, but summons the energy to persevere with her testimony.

When the group left the monument, Ms. Teramae was the only one to look back and bow. Kae Enokida, 22, was moved at the sight. A college senior and resident of Minami Ward, she is a trainee in the second cohort who wonders if she can properly convey Ms. Teramae’s inner emotions, too.

Yasushi Tsuji, 72, a resident of Nishi Ward and a trainee in the first cohort, will begin giving testimonies this spring. He keenly feels the difficulty of succeeding the survivors and their experiences, which can’t actually be inherited, but must be handed down. “I’m not a survivor of the atomic bombing,” he said. “So I can’t pretend that I’ve experienced it. Still, I’d like to explore what I can convey and to what degree.” Mr. Tsuji is determined to do his best.

Average age of A-bomb survivors is 79.44

According to the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, the average age of all survivors in Japan who hold the Atomic Bomb Survivor’s Certificate, as of the end of March 2014, is 79.44. By the end of this fiscal year, it is very likely that the average age will top 80. For the first time, the number of people who hold the Atomic Bomb Survivor’s Certificate has fallen below 200,000, to 192,719. In the city of Hiroshima, the average age of 61,666 survivors is 78.93. Those with clear memories from the time of the atomic bombing are even older.

“If we want many more people to share our wish for the abolition of nuclear weapons, we must hand down the experiences of the atomic bombing, but relying solely on the A-bomb survivors to do this is now impossible,” said Katsumi Suesada, the director of the A-bomb Experience Preservation Division of the City of Hiroshima.

About 20 organizations belong to the network of hibakusha [A-bomb survivors] who offer A-bomb testimonies, and during the previous fiscal year, they conveyed 2,623 A-bomb accounts to 233,400 people. These participants are mainly students on school trips to Hiroshima. Since fiscal 2005, when the number of testimonies exceeded 2,500, it has remained at about the same level. “This was possible thanks to the earnest cooperation of the survivors, but in ten years, we know we’ll be unable to maintain this current level of activity if we depend only on the survivors,” Ms. Suesada said. This is why the City of Hiroshima is working quickly to train the Hibakusha Successors.

The Chugoku Shimbun has carried out a nationwide survey to gauge the survivors’ views. To the question “Have the A-bomb testimonies contributed to the prevention of nuclear war and to world peace?”, 80.4 percent of the respondents replied “yes” or “to some extent, yes.” This was much higher than the 9.1 percent who replied “not so much” or “no.”

On the other hand, to the question “What will become of the succession of survivors’ testimonies?”, only 3.6 percent of the respondents said, “I’m not worried,” but a total of 89.1 percent replied negatively, including those who said, “I’m worried,” “The memories will be gradually lost,” and “The memories will be rapidly lost.” In this world, where so many nuclear weapons still remain, if the testimonies of the survivors’ experiences have served to help prevent a nuclear war, what will the future bring? This survey reveals the survivors’ anxiety and frustration.

Survivor makes patient appeal to the world

A large gap in perspective exists between Japan and the United States when it comes to the atomic bombings. Miyoko Matsubara, 82, a survivor who lives in Minami Ward, Hiroshima, has strived to bridge this gap. One of the pioneers who made great efforts to give her testimony overseas, she is also taking part in the program of Hibakusha Successors, conveying her memories to the participants.

In 1962, Ms. Matsubara joined the World Peace Pilgrimage organized by Barbara Reynolds (1915-90), an American peace activist, and visited 14 countries in the United States and Europe. This was the first time she shared her A-bomb account outside Japan. She also attended international conferences and A-bomb exhibitions in Asian nations, including India, giving her testimony in English.

“Anti-personnel land mines and cluster bombs are now prohibited by international conventions,” Ms. Matsubara said. “Why can’t we have a nuclear weapons convention?” Recently, she has been unwell and cannot travel abroad, but she has summoned her strength to convey her experiences to her “successors.”

One of them is Norie Yamamura, 64, a resident of Akitakata City. She said, “I’m overwhelmed by Ms. Matsubara’s strong sense of mission.” Ms. Yamamura’s late father was also a survivor who entered the city soon after the atomic bombing. He rarely told about his experience to his daughter. “My father was traumatized by the tragic scenes he saw in Hiroshima,” she said. “Ms. Matsubara must have suffered a similar trauma, too, but I think she made efforts to overcome it.”

About 15 years ago, Ms. Matsubara and her supporters launched a bilingual website, in Japanese and English, to appeal for the abolition of nuclear weapons. But the site was met with some harsh comments online, particularly from the United States, such as “The atomic bombs ended the war and saved the lives of many people” and “The atrocities of the Japanese military should also be put on your website.” She patiently responded to such comments, believing, “Someday we can understand one another. I have hope. Thanks to Barbara, who was an American herself, I’m here today.”

Barbara Reynolds came to Japan with her husband, who worked at the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC, now the Radiation Effects Research Foundation) in Hiroshima. In the city, she saw the damage done by the atomic bombing and became devoted to anti-nuclear peace activities. Ms. Matsubara recalled, “When I met her, I knew I shouldn’t hate the American people, I should hate war and atomic bombs. I shouldn’t continue to spend my days crying, I thought. I should speak out.”

To the south of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum stands a monument inscribed with Barbara’s words: “I, too, am a hibakusha.” These words convey the idea that there are things we must communicate beyond generations and national borders. Even if we are not hibakusha ourselves, we must take it upon ourselves to hand down their message.

“We will be understood, I’m certain of that. Barbara’s example continues to encourage me,” Ms. Matsubara said, her hope never faltering.

Interview with Hiroko Okuda, associate professor of Kanto Gakuin University

The Chugoku Shimbun interviewed Hiroko Okada, associate professor at Kanto Gakuin University and author of Genbaku no Kioku [Remembering the Atomic Bombing], with regard to the significance and the issues involved in conveying memories of the atomic bombings and the war.

Seventy years have now passed since the atomic bombings. What do you see as the significance of this milestone in terms of handing down the memories of the bombings to future generations?

The A-bomb survivors are aging, and there are fewer opportunities for people to hear their stories in person. I would like to again stress the importance of meeting them and listening to them. We can also feel many things from the tone of their voice, their pauses, and their silence. We can reflect on what can’t be explained in words. There’s not much time left. Listeners must become more proactive. They must take action.

You emphasize the importance of acknowledging the particular experience of each survivor.

The atomic bombings, as a symbol of the war damage, have become a part of the collective memory of our nation. Each survivor has his or her own experience of the atomic bombings, but the survivors’ individual experiences have also been collectively addressed and symbolized, wrapped in the phrase, “the only country to have experienced atomic bombings.” This process overlaps the way the bombings have been turned into a symbol, and has brought about the gap in our perspective of the atomic bombings and our recognition of the war between Japan and its neighbors in Asia and other nations.

I wonder if we can overcome this fixed gap by listening directly to the views and values of individual survivors. Can’t we do that as we listen to them?

A fixed view of the atomic bombings is also seen in the United States.

Justification for the atomic bombings, which contends that many lives were saved as a result of these attacks, is deeply rooted. This is part of the collective memory of the United States. But if this idea is handed down to future generations unquestioningly, we will be unable to bridge the divide and find mutual understanding.

The survivors’ experiences of the atomic bombings have the power to expand the personal question of “Why did I survive?” to the wider public question of “Why did so many people have to die?” This power will enable us to transcend national borders and see where victims and aggressors overlap. This is what should be handed down to future generations.

Hiroko Okuda
Hiroko Okuda obtained her Ph.D. from Northwestern University in the United States. She was an associate professor at Nanzan University before assuming her current position. She is the author of Genbaku no Kioku [Remembering the Atomic Bombing] and Okinawa no Kioku [Remembering Okinawa]. Her field of expertise is communications.

Keywords

Hibakusha Successors
With the survivors of the atomic bombing growing older, the City of Hiroshima launched a three-year training program in fiscal 2012 to foster “Hibakusha Successors” who will provide testimonies of the atomic bombing on behalf of the survivors. During the first year, the applicants mainly attend lectures to study about the facts of the atomic bombing and other matters. In the second year, they receive individual instruction from survivors who are registered with the Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation. In the third year, the trainees practice relating A-bomb accounts. About 50 trainees in the first cohort will complete the three-year training this spring. They will be commissioned by the foundation to convey testimonies to students on school trips and visitors from abroad at Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum and other places.

(Originally published on January 5, 2015)